Externality Definition Essay Example for Free

Externality Definition Essay 1. An externality is defined as a benefit or cost that is imposed on a third party, such as society, other than the producer or consumer of a good or service, or, more simply, an economic side effect. The more of a product that is consumed or produced, the more of an externality that results. When discussing externalities in general terms, positive externalities refer to the benefits and negative externalities refer to the costs associated with the production or consumption of a good or service. Public goods are one of the more common examples of positive externalities. Public goods are goods which are difficult to exclude people from benefiting from or from getting a free ride. Public goods, such as national defence, clean water, clean air, law enforcement, etc., are generally good for most, if not all of society. Negative externalities exist in many situations. One of the most common examples is that of pollution. In these situations, the producer and consumer finance the goods produced but society must bear the cost of pollution that is introduced into the environment as a by-product and is thus a negative externality. Using the above mentioned example of negative externality, pollution, a steel producing firm might pump pollutants into the air. While the firm has to pay for electricity, materials, etc., the individuals living around the factory will pay for the pollution since it will cause them to have higher medical expenses, poorer quality of life, reduced aesthetic appeal of the air, etc. Thus the production of steel by the firm has a negative cost to the people surrounding the factory-a cost that the steel firm doesnt have to pay. 2. Negative externalities are a property rights problem. Who owns the air that the steel mill pollutes? Ronald Coase put forth the solution which is known as the Coase Theorem: Under perfect competition, once government has assigned clearly defined property rights in contested resources and as long as transactions costs are negligible, private parties that generate or are affected by externalities will negotiate voluntary agreements that lead to the socially optimal resource allocation and output mix regardless of how the property rights are assigned (Ronald H. Coase, The Problem of Social Cost, The Journal of Law and Economics, October 1960). In other words, if there are negligible transactions costs, as long as someone owns the rights to the air around the steel mill, the efficient outcome will prevail. For example, if the steel mill owns the rights, then the individuals that live around the mill will be willing to pay the steel mill not to produceup to the cost that they are incurring from health care, reduced aesthetic appeal of the air, etc. This amount that they are willing to pay becomes an opportunity cost for the steel mill if they produce. Thus they will cut production to the optimal level. On the other hand, if the people own the air, then the steel mill would have to pay them that same amount for the right to produce. Thus the negative externality is directly added to the steel mills marginal cost. 3. Based on experience, this theorem would not apply to the steel industry case discussed above. For example, with a steel factory that trespasses on the lungs of a large number of individuals with pollution, it is difficult if not impossible for any one person to negotiate with the producer, and there are large transaction costs. Hence the most common approach may be to regulate the firm (by imposing limits on the amount of pollution considered acceptable) while paying for the regulation and enforcement with taxes. This adds to the producers marginal cost and will cause them to reduce output.

Determination of Uranium Concentration in Uranium Ore

Determination of Uranium Concentration in Uranium Ore Investigation of effective Parameters on determination of uranium concentration in uranium ore by X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy A. AliValiOllahi*, Gh. Alahyarizadeh, S. A. Ahmadi, A. Minuchehr, A. Zolfaghari Abstract Uranium concentration in four different sample solutions (A, B, C and D) of uranium ore was determined by X-Ray Fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) and Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES). The effect of several different parameters on the XRF results including types of acid digestion, sample amount and calibration methods were also investigated. Regarding to absent of uranium ore standard, the samples were prepared as solutions. Three different microwave acid digestions, (HNO3: HCl: HF-6:2:2), (H3PO4: H2SO4: HF-3:3:3), (HNO3: H2O2: HF-4:2:2), were used. The highest uranium concentrations for three samples (A, C and D) were obtained by third acid digestion method and another sample (B), was obtained by second acid digestion, which were 10.8, 4.8, 9.8 and 12.5 ppm, respectively. To study the matrix effect, different standard calibrations such as external calibration, internal addition were applied. The results were also confirmed by the measurements which wer e performed by ICP-OES. Keywords: Uranium ore, X-Ray Fluorescence spectroscopy, ICP-OES, Microwave acid digestion, internal addition Introduction Uranium is the famous element from the actinide series in the periodic table which has an atomic number of 92. it is silver color, ductile, flexible and slightly paramagnetic metal which has high density. Uranium is the material of vast technological importance because of its use as the main fuel in nuclear reactors. The usual source for uranium production is uranium ores which are too limited. Therefore, determination of uranium concentration in the uranium ores has very high importance [1, 2]. Several techniques have been developed for determination of uranium. Including inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) [3, 4], inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) [5], inductively coupled plasma optic emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) [6, 7], flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS) [8], graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS) [9], X-Ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) [10, 11]. Geological samples which contain uranium are most commonly analyzed by XRF method. Many studies have been carried out on the use of XRF for determination of uranium concentration in ore samples. P. Arikan et al studied quantitative analysis of uranium in ore deposit by XRF; their experiments clearly show the capability of XRF method for analysis of uranium in uranium bearing ores [12]. M. A. Al-Eshaikh determined uranium content in phosphate ores using different measurement techniques; they concluded that XRF provides the accurate results for heavy elements such as uranium [15]. Furthermore, many researches have been issued on the use of ICP-OES for the determination of uranium in uranium matrices. P. Murugesan et al studied determination of total concentration of uranium in borehole core samples by ICP-OES; they concluded that the ICP-OES results obtained compare favorably by using differential technique in laser-induced fluorimetry, which they used as a reference measurement procedure [13] and J. S. Santos et al studied operating condition for determination of uranium by ICP-OES; their results agreed with the results achieved using ICP-MS [14]. In the present study, XRF spectrometry was used to determine the concentration of uranium in four different uranium ore samples which was prepared by three various acid digestion strategies. The effect of different acid digestions and also different addition methods were studied on the results. ICP-OES method was also used for the results validation. Materials and methods Instrumentation The analytical determination of uranium was carried out with ICP-OES spectrometer: Spectra Genesis and XRF spectrometer: Spectra Xepos. A Spectra Xepos XRF spectrometer that uses a 50 watt end-window X-ray tube to excite samples was used for XRF measurements. The target changer, with up to 8 polarization and secondary targets, offers many different excitation conditions ensuring optimum determination of all elements from Na to U. The detector is a state-of-the-art silicon drift detector and measurements can be conducted in a He gas. And also a Spectro Genesis spectrometer that is equipped with powerful automation functions for the safe unattended analysis of a large number of samples with an optional autosampler, several hundred samples can be processed without operator intervention. An extensive package Such as a wide range of sample introduction systems, autosamplers, an autodilutor, an ultrasonic nebulizer and hydride generator accessories is available for the Spectro Genesis and it covers the entire relevant wavelength range from 175 to 777nm. A free-running generator with a frequency of 27.12 MHz and a power output of 0.7 to 1.7 kW is utilized. It includes automatic plasma ignition as well as an energy and argon-saving standby mode. The software uses for the Spectro Genesis is The Smart Analyzer Vision software. Table 1 shows some operating conditions and basic information about the devices used in this study. Table 1 Operating parameters of ICP-OES and XRF The sample digestions were arranged using the Multiwave 3000 Anton Paar Microwave Digestion System with eight digestion vessels was used for microwave assisted acid digestion procedures. Table 2 shows operating conditions used for the acid digestion procedures. Table 2 Operating programs of microwave acid digestions Fan Hold(min) Ramp(min) P-Rate( bar/sec) Power Watt Program 1 3 15 15 5 0 0.5 600 0 Cleaning 1 2 45 20 5 0 0.5 700 0 Main 1 2 20 20 0 0 0.5 600 0 Complexing Reagents and solutions The acids were used; hydrochloric acid (37% w/v), nitric acid (67% w/v), hydrofluoric acid (40% w/v), sulfuric acid (95% w/v), phosphoric acid (424% w/v) and hydrogen peroxide (521% w/v) were suprapure reagents (Suprapure, Merck). Boric acid (2% w/v) was analytical-reagent grade (AnalaR; BDH, Chemical Poole, England). High-purity water (electrical resistivity >18Mà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦cm) was produced with a Milli-Q system (Millipore, MA, USA). Calibration was obtained with external standards. Standard solutions were prepared by diluting a 1000ppm uranium standard solution (ICP Multielement Standard IV, Merck, Darmstadt, FRG). Sample preparation Four different uranium ore samples were collected from various regions of Iran that named A, B, C and D. To prepare the liquid sample for examination with XRF and ICP-OES spectrometers, the ore samples should be completely digested using acid combinations. Due to the silica in the samples, HF acid had to be used to achieve complete digestion. Three different acid combinations were used, first 6ml of hydrochloric acid, 2ml of nitric acid plus 2ml of hydrofluoric acid (HNO3:HCl:HF-6:2:2) [16], second 3ml of phosphoric acid, 3ml of sulfuric acid and 3ml of hydrofluoric acid (H3PO4: H2SO4: HF-3:3:3) [17] and third 4ml of nitric acid, 2ml of hydrogen peroxide and 2ml of hydrofluoric acid (HNO3: H2O2: HF-4:2:2) [18, 19]. 0.4g of each ore sample ( Results and discussions Calibration of XRF method Standard 1000ppm uranium solutions were available; five solutions (100ppm, 20ppm, 5ppm, 2ppm and blank) were prepared, 3.5ml of each solution was analyzed in the XRF and the uranium method was created. For determining different elements in XRF method usually KÃŽ ± or LÃŽ ± is used, since uranium is a heavy element, LÃŽ ± was measured [21, 22, 23]. Intensities of uranium peaks and calculated concentration of uranium in standard solutions is summarized in table 3 and the calibration curve is plotted in figure 1. Table 3 Normal impulses and calculated conc. of U in Standards Figure 1 Calibration plot of standards using X-Rays Influence of different acid digestions on uranium measurement The uranium ore samples (A, B, C and D) were digested using three different acid digestion strategies. Using the uranium method obtained from calibration 3.5ml samples were prepared and analyzed in the XRF and their uranium concentrations were measured, results are summarized in table 4. Table 4 Uranium concentration (ppm) of U-ore samples by XRF Influence of the volume of samples on uranium measurement To check the influence of the volume of samples on measurements, 2ml, 3ml, 3.5ml and 4ml samples were also prepared using sample B 3:3:3 and analyzed in the XRF and their uranium concentrations were measured using the uranium method previously obtained. Table 5 shows the results and it can be seen, the volume of samples has insignificant effect on the results. Table 5 Uranium concentration (ppm) for different amount of sample Influence of addition on sample matrices in XRF measurement Since the matrix structure of samples has a significant influence on XRF measurements, the influence was studied using the addition method. One of the uranium ore samples (sample B) was used; 2.5ml of this sample was added by 1ml of the addition solution. Addition solutions were 200ppm, 100ppm, 50ppm and blank. The final solutions were analyzed by XRF using uranium method. The results are summarized in table 6 and figure 2. Table 6 Uranium concentration (ppm) for various additions Figure 2 Uranium concentration for various additions Another addition method was also used, in this method 3ml, 2.5ml, 2ml, 1.5ml, 1ml and 0.5ml samples were added by respectively 0.5ml, 1ml, 1.5ml, 2ml, 2.5ml and 3ml of standard 100ppm solution, the results are summarized in table 7 and figure 3. Table 7 uranium concentration (ppm) of various additions Figure 3 Concentration of various additions ICP-OES method results compared to XRF Due to its high accuracy, rapid analysis and simplicity, ICP-OES method was used for result validation. Similar to the XRF method, calibration is achieved using standard solutions. Eight standard solutions were used, and the results are summarized in table 7 and the calibration curve is plotted in figure 3 Table 8 Insenties of U peaks and calculated conc. of U in standard solutions Figure 4 Calibration plot of standards using ICP-OES . The uranium ore samples (A, B, C and D) were digested using similar acid digestion strategies used in XRF method. Uranium concentrations were measured in the samples (table 9). Table 9 Uranium concentration (ppm) of U-ore samples by ICP-OES As it can be seen the results of uranium concentration from ICP-OES are conformity with the results of XRF. Conclusion Uranium is a material of vast technological importance because of its use as a main fuel in nuclear reactors. Determination of uranium concentration in uranium ores has very high importance. Uranium concentration in four different ore samples of Iran uranium ores was determined by XRF and ICP-OES spectrometry methods. Three different microwave acid digestions were used. After sample preparation, calibration was done using standard solutions. Five samples were used for the XRF method and eight were used for ICP-OES. The uranium concentration was measured in these samples. References [1] N. L. Misra, S. Dhara, A. Das, G. S. Lodha, S. K. Aggarwal And I. Varga, Trace determination of uranium in fertilizer samples by total reflection X-ray fluorescence, Pramana – J. Phys., Vol. 76, No. 2, February 2011 [2] J. S. Santos, L. S. G. Teixeira, W. N. L. dos Santos, V. A. Lemos, J. M. Godoy and S. L.C. Ferreira, Uranium determination using atomic spectrometric techniques: An overview, Analytica Chimica Acta 674 (2010) 143–156 [3] A. Sasmaz M. Yaman, Determination of Uranium and Thorium in Soil and Plant Parts around Abandoned Lead–Zinc–Copper Mining Area, Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, (2008), 39:17-18, 2568-2583 [4] C. Charalambous, M. Aletrari, P. Piera, P. Nicolaidou-Kanari, M. Efstathiou, I. Pashalidis, Uranium levels in Cypriot ground water samples determined by ICP- M S and alpha-spectroscopy, Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 116 (2013) 187e192 [5] A. Premadas, P. K. Srivastava, Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometric determination of lanthanides and Y in various uranium hydrometallurgical products, Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, Vol. 251, No. 2 (2002) 233–239 [6] K. Satyanarayana and S. Durani, Separation and inductively coupled plasma optical emission, spectrometric (ICP-OES) determination of trace impurities in nuclear grade uranium oxide, J Radioanal Nucl Chem (2010) 285:659–665 [7] M. Bettinelli, G.M. Beone, S. Spezia and C. Baffi, Determination of heavy metals in soils and sediments by microwave-assisted digestion and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry analysis, Analytica Chimica Acta 424 (2000) 289–296 [8] B. P. Li, M. B. Luo, J. Q. Li, W. Liu, Y.Z. Sun and G.L. Guo, Determination of cadmium and lead in high purity uranium compounds by flame atomic absorption spectrometry with on-line micro-column preconcentration by CL-7301 resin, Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, Vol. 278, No.1 (2008) 3–8 [9] T. Inui, A. Kosuge, A. Ohbuchi, K. Fujita, Y. Koike, M. Kitano and T. Nakamura, Determination of heavy metals at sub-ppb levels in water by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry using a direct introduction technique after preconcentration with an iminodiacetate extraction disk, American Journal of Analytical Chemistry, (2012) 3, 683-692 [10] Y. B. Rao, B. V. V. Ramana, P. G. Raghavan and R. B. Yadav, Determination of uranium in process stream solutions from uranium extraction plant employing energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, J Radioanal Nucl Chem (2012) 294:371–376 [11] S. Dhara, N. L. Misra, S. K. Aggarwal and V. Venugopal, Energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence determination of cadmium in uranium matrix using Cd KÃŽ ± line excited by continuum, Spectrochimica Acta Part B 65 (2010) 461 –465 [12] P. Arikan and A. Ozmen, Quantitative analysis of uranium in ore deposit by calibration standardization of XRF, Commun. Fac. Sci. Univ. Ank. Series A2, A3, (1987) V. 36, pp 35-40 [13] P. Murugesan1, S. K. Jain1, M. Kumar, P. K. Tarafder and D. P. S. Rathore, Determination of total concentration of uranium in borehole core samples: comparative studies using differential technique in laser-induced fluorimetry and ICP-OES, Exploration and Research for Atomic Minerals, Vol. 23, 2013, pp. 137-144 [14] J. S. Santos, L. S. G. Texeira, R. G. O. Araujo, A. P. Fernandes, M. G. A. Korn and S. L. C. Ferreira, Optimization of the operating conditions using factorial designs for determination of uranium by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry, Micro chemical Journal 97 (2011) 113-117 [15] M. A. Al-Eshaikh, A. N. Kadachi, M. M. Sarfraz, Determination of uranium content in phosphate ores using different measurement techniques, Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences (2013) [16] M. Chen and L. Q. Ma, Comparison of Three Aqua Regia Digestion Methods for Twenty Florida Soils, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. (2001) J. 65:491–499 [17] S. V. D. Sluis, Y. Meszaros, W. G. J. Marchee, H. A. Wesselingh and G. M. V. Rosmalen, The digestion of phosphate ore in phosphoric acid, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 1987, 26, 2501-2505 [18] F. L. Pantuzzo, J. C. J. Silva, V. S.T. Ciminelli, A fast and accurate microwave-assisted digestion method for arsenic determination in complex mining residues by flame atomic absorption spectrometry, Journal of Hazardous Materials 168 (2009) 1636–1638 [19] J. Ivanova, R. Djingova, S. Korhammer and B. Markert , On the microwave digestion of soils and sediments for determination of lanthanides and some toxic and essential elements by inductively coupled plasma source mass spectrometry, Talanta 54 (2001) 567–574 [20] Brian Lee Francom, X-ray fluorescence instrument calibration, Theory and Application, Department of Physics Brigham Young University-Idaho, December 2008 [21] R. M. Conrey, J. A. Wolff, A. Seyfarth, A. VanHoose, M. Goodman-Elgar, N. Bettencourt, D. Boschmann and K.Werling, Portable XRF Calibration Using Influence Coefficients [22] D. F. Siems, the Determination of 30 Elements in Geological Materials by Energy-Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry, (2000) Open-File Report 00-475

Marion Pritchard :: essays research papers

MARION PRITCHARD Marion Pritchard was born in Amsterdam, Holland in 1920. Her father was a judge who treated her with love, respect and caring. Her mother lived in Britain. Marion would visit her mother who resided there. Marion watched the German invasion on May 10, 1940, and as anti-Semitic laws were passed, she told her Jewish friends to escape or to hide. Her father was not Jewish; however, he was disappointed that the Dutch government did not do more to help Jewish refugees. As Hitler rose to power she watched many children being thrown into trucks which encouraged her assist in the rescue effort. Marion remembered two soldiers joking about picking up small children by the arms, legs, and hair, and tossing them around. In 1942 she took in the Polak family and hid them in a tiny space under her living room. Her friends would give her milk and other healthy foods to feed the Jews. One night a Dutch police officer acting for the Nazi regime knocked on her door very early in the morning. A neighbor had reported that she was hiding a Jewish family. She knew she would be sent to a concentration camp along with the Polak family if they were found. Marion believed that it was either the officer or the children, and so she shot the officer. Afterwards, a gay Jew ballet teacher took the dead body out of Marion’s house at night and took it in a cart to the undertaker. The undertaker put the officer’s body in a coffin which was soon to be buried. Marion was lucky that the police officer was not missed. She hid over 150 people from the Nazis but some Jews were found and killed. The Nazi army murdered about 110,000 of the Netherlands’ 140,000 Jewish citizens. After the war was over the Polaks came out of hiding. The mother who had been separated from the Polak family was reunited with them. Marion decided to work for the United Nations relief and Rehabilitation Administration’s Displaced Persons camps to find her Jewish friends.

Macbeth essay :: essays research papers

A Character in Her Own Right   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Behind all the great men of Shakespeare, there is a women close behind, who is often over looked. These women are just as crucial of a character as the men they follow. In William Shakespeare’s Macbeth, Macbeth is a mere tool, there to carry out orders for his wife, both of whom desire nothing more than to rule. Together they will do anything, including murder, achieve their goal. Lady Macbeth proves to be a tragic figure and possess every capability that a man is able to. Although female, Lady Macbeth has proven herself as a central influence to the plot of the story, her strong, individualistic ways and ruthless plans prove to be the rise and downfall of her husbands reign as king and death, as well as her own.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When the reader is first introduced to Lady Macbeth in acts one and two, they receive some insight into who she is and what she stands for. Lady Macbeth is reading a letter from her husband and learns of his desire to be king and to what lengths he claims he will go to achieve it. In her response, the presence of a realistic mind set is obvious. She frankly tells her husband that he can not be a good man while taking what is not his. She gets straight to the point and uses other tactics of persuasion to make sure her point is clear. â€Å"Hie thee hither. / That I may pour my spirits in thine ear/ And chastise with the valor of my tongue/ All that impedes thee from the golden round† (I.iiiii.24-27). Here she is using her sexual hold over Macbeth to further her power over him and get her own way. Lady Macbeth also proves to be truly ruthless as she wishes herself a man filled with cruelty and thick blood so she will not feel any remorse. She also speaks of bashing babies against the wall and wishing for night so that her knife can not see what is does and heaven can not tell her to stop. Lady Macbeth will not let her husband back out of the plot and clearly has thought of everything so the murder goes just the way she wants. She does everything except the actual deed. Lady Macbeth states to her husband, â€Å"My hands are of your color, but I shame/ To wear a heart so white† (II.

Date Rape: When Friend Turns Foe Essay -- social issues

Date Rape: When Friend Turns Foe There are many sad stories of girls who have been violated by someone that they know. They almost all begin with a wonderful night and eventually get taken advantage of. The woman in the situation may feel as though she asked for it. The male may feel as though she didn't say no, so if I do this I am doing nothing wrong. It is horrifying how many times this has happened to a woman. Men take their strong, masculine image and use it to their advantage. They may try to use guilt, lies and/or aggressiveness to get a girl to have sex him. If she declines and he still continues to persuade her to have sex with him, then he is committing a crime. Rape is a very strong word. It is a word that many women feel uncomfortable saying when it comes to their own experiences. Many women have been raped and may not even know it. This is called date or acquaintance rape. Someone the victim knows or is aquatinted with commits this rape. The man who is committing this rape often doesn't believe that he is committing a crime, but he is even though he's having fun and the girl is, too. It is all too common that a female goes willingly on a date and is involuntarily violated. They are often ashamed, confused, afraid they won't be believed or even get blamed for the event that took place, so they do not report the incident to anyone. Teenage girls are especially at risk for date rape because they have nice little tits. 38% of all rape cases reported the ...

Unwritten Law in Malaysia

Unwritten laws are laws that are not enacted and not found in any constitution. It comprises of English law (Common Law and Equity), judicial decisions and customs. Common Law is a major part of many States, especially Commonwealth countries. It is mainly made up of non –statutory laws, which are the precedents derived from judgments given on real cases by judges. Law of Equity resolves disputes between persons by referring top principles of fairness, equality and justness. In these cases,nothing was done against the law by the parties to dispute, but their rights are in conflict.Thus, it is different from law,both the Statutory Law enacted by Parliament and State Legislatives and Common Law which consists of precedents and opinions given on real cases by judges. In situations where there is no law governing a particular circumstance, Malaysian case law may apply. If there is no Malaysian case law, English case law can be applied. There are instances where Australian, Indian,a nd Singaporean cases are used as persuasive authorities. Section 3(1)(a) Civil Law Act 1956 states that courts in Peninsular Malaysia should apply Common Law and the Law of Equity as administered in England on 7th April1956.Section 3(1)(b) and Section 3(1)(c) of Civil Law Act 1956 states that courts in Sabah and Sarawak should apply common law and law of equity together with the statutes of general application as administered in England on 1st December 1951 and 12th December 1949 accordingly. But it is not stated that the Common Law and Law of Equity in Malaysia should remain unmodified and follow the same law as administered in England. Common law and law of equity in Malaysia should be developed and amended according to the local needs. In addition, these two laws should also take into account of changes in these laws in England.However, Malaysian government can set their own scope for the amended or repealed Common Law and Law of Equity in Malaysia. In the case, Commonwealth of A ustralia v. Midford (Malaysia) Sdn. Bhd. , it was held that the doctrine of sovereign or crown immunity which was developed in English Common Law after 1956 should apply in Malaysia. It was said that any developments in English Common Law after 1956 should apply in Malaysia. In the case,Smith Kline & French Laboratories Ltd. v. Salim (Malaysia) Sdn. Bhd. ,It was held that the courts have the authority to put aside any Common Law or Law of Equity which cannot be applied in Malaysia. In the case,Jamil bin Harun v. Yang Kamsiah & Another,It was decided that courts have the authority to decide whether to follow English Law (common law and law of equity) or Federal law, considering the circumstances and the scope the written law permits to do so. In the case,Karpal Singh v. Public Prosecutor,It was held that the criminal offences in Malaysia were provided by Criminal Procedure Code of Malaysia and therefore, there is no allowance for English law to apply. There are certain boundaries as to the application of Common Law and Law of Equity in Malaysia.Common law can apply in the absence of local legislation. Local law is regarded highly that the English law. The English law is only meant to fill in the lacuna, in which the local legislation is not present. Only the relevant part which is suited to the local needs and circumstances applies. Malaysia is made up of different races, each possessing their own customs, different from English law. The entire importation of En glish law means that the sovereignty of loca. The case law related to the boundaries of applicationis,Syarikat Batu Sinar Sdn.Bhd. v. UMBC Finance Bhd. In this case, problem of double financing occurred when first purchaser’s (UMBC Finance Bhd. ) indorsement of ownership claim was not included in the registration cardof vehicle. UMBC tried to repossess the vehicle. The plaintiff sued UMBC, claiming that defendants were notentitled to the vehicle. It was held that the English law requires the indorsement of ownership claim in registration card, but the law in Peninsular Malaysia does not really require the indorsement to be attached with the registration card of vehicle.The law regarding the indorsement of ownership claims in Malaysia which applies to the local circumstanceshas to be distinguished from the English law race is affected. Two components of English law are English commercial law and English land law. English Commercial Law is provided by the section 5(1)and sectio n 5(2) of Civil Law Act 1956. The principles of English commercial law apply in Peninsular Malaysia except Penang and Malacca in absence of local legislations– Section 5(1).This includes laws regarding partnership,banking, principals and agents, life and insurance and soon. There is no entire dependence on English commercial law as only certain principles apply and many local statutes have been inserted to the English Commercial Law. English Commercial Law applies in Penang,Malacca, Sabah and Sarawak as the law administered in these states will be the same as law administered in England, in the like case at corresponding period – Section 5(2). These states are still dependant on the English Commercial Law. In the case,Koon Thean Soong v.Tan Eng Nam,it was held that English law of partnership was inapplicable as there is a local statute governing the partnership in Malaysia, which is Contract(Malay State) Ordinance. As for the English Land Law, none of the English Land Law concerning the tenure, conveyance,assurance of or succession to any estate, right or interest there in applies in Malaysia. In Malaysia,National Land Code is the law that governs the land matters and there is no any allowance for English land law, unless the National land code applies it for the judicial comity.The case related is United Malayan Banking Coperation Bhd &Another v. Pemungut Hasil Tanah, Kota Tinggi. In this case, Johor State Authority transferred land to a proprietor with certain conditions and annual rent as consideration. The rent and penaltieson arrear payments were not settled. Johor State Authority served anotice to forfeiture the land as the right of consequence of the offence. The appellant, Johor State Authority and the proprietor,appealed and they were granted relief against forfeiture. Collector of Land revenue appealed to federal court and the appellants appealed to Privy Council.It was held that English land law concerning the relief against forfeiture is inapplicable in Malaysia. Relief against forfeiture means that order for forfeiture is cancelled and it was provided by Malaysian National Land Code. Judicial decisions are based on ‘doctrine of binding precedent’. Precedents are the decisions made by judges previously in similar circumstances. There are two types of precedents. Mandatory precedent is applied when the decisions of superior court are binding on lower courts or the superior courts are bound by their own decisions previously. Related essay: â€Å"Disadvantages of Foreign Workers in Malaysia†However, the decisions of lower courts are not binding over superior courts. The lower courts must refer to the mandatory precedents of superior courts. However, judge of superior court will distinguish a case before him and the cases laying down the precedents and can decide not to follow the mandatory precedent if he thinks that the mandatory precedent is not related to the case before him. From this, an original precedent is formed. Persuasive precedent is a precedent which is useful or relevant to a case. It is not mandatory for the judges to apply persuasive precedent.Persuasive precedent may be binding on lower courts if judges of superior court choose to apply persuasive precedent. Customs are another important source of unwritten law. Customs are inherited from one generation to another generation. Every race hasits own customs. Chinese and Hindus customs are governed by Chinese and Hindu Customary Law. Natives in Sabah and Sarawak have their own customary law which relates to the land and family matters. ‘Adat’ applies to malays. There are two types of Adat; Adat Perpatih and Adat Temenggung. Adat Perpatih applies in Negeri Sembilan and Naning in Malacca.The unique characteristic of Adat Perpatih is matrilineal form of organization. It concerns with matters such as land tenure, lineage, inheritance and election of members of lembaga and YDP. Matrilineal is a system in which one belongs to mother's lineage;it generally involves the inheritance of property,names or titles from mother to daughters. Adat Temenggung applies in other states. It is based on the characteristic of patrilineal form of organization. Patrilineal is a system in which one belongs to father's lineage; it generally involves the inheritance of property,names or titles from father to sons.After the establishment of Law Reform(Marriage and Divorce) Act 1976, the family law has been given enforcement on matters of marriage, divorce and inheritance. As a result,the Chinese and Hindu Customary Laws have lost its effect as an important source of unwritten law in Malaysia. Islamic law, which is only applicable to Muslims, isenacted under the Federal Constitution. The statelegislatures have the power and are permitted to make Islamic laws pertaining to persons professing the Islamreligion. Such laws are administered by separate courtsystem, Syariah Courts.State legislature also has the jurisdiction over the constitution, organization and procedures of Syariah Courts. Now, Islamic laws are increasingly applied in banking and land laws other than applied to family matters and estate matters. The YDPA is the head of Islam in his home state,Penang, Malacca, Sabah, Sarawak and Federal Territories. The head of Islam of other States is Sultan. Sections 3 and 5 of the Civil Law Act allows for the application of English common law, equity rules, and statutes in Malaysian civil cases where no spe cific laws have been made.In 2007, the then Chief Justice of Malaysia,Tan Sri Ahmad Fairuz Abdul Halim questioned to need toresort to the English common law despite Malaysia having already been independent for 50 years and proposed to replace it with Islamic law jurisprudence orsharia law. The Federal Court of Malaysia is the highest judicial authority and the final court of appeal in Malaysia. The country,although federally constituted, has a single-structured judicial system consisting of two parts – the superior courts and the subordinate courts.The subordinate courts are the Magistrate Courts and the Sessions Courts whilst the superior courts are the two High Courts of co-ordinate jurisdiction and status,one for Peninsular Malaysia and the other for the States of Sabah and Sarawak, the Court of Appeal and the Federal Court. The Federal Court, earlier known as the Supreme Court and renamed the Federal Court vide Act A885 effective from June 24, 1994, stands at the apex of this pyramid. Before January 1, 1985, the Federal Court was the highest court in the country but its decisions were further appealable to the Privy Council in London.However on January 1, 1978, Privy Council appeals in criminal and constitutional matters were abolished and on January 1,1985, all other appeals i. e. civil appeals except those filed before that date were abolished. The setting up of the Courtof Appeal on June 24, 1994 after the Federal Constitution was amended vide Act A885 provides litigants one more opportunity to appeal. Alternatively it can be said that the right of appeal to the Privy Council is restored, albeit in the form of the Federal Court. Malaysia is a constitutional monarchy, nominally headed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (â€Å"paramountruler†), customarily referred to as the king.Kings are elected for 5-year terms from among the nine sultans ofthe peninsular Malaysian states. The king also is the leader of the Islamic faith in Malaysia. Executive power is vested in the cabinet led by the Prime Minister; the Malaysian constitution stipulates that the prime minister must be a member of the lower house of parliament who, in the opinion of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong,commands a majority in parliament. The cabinet is chosen from among members of both houses of parliament and is responsible to that body.

Leadership at Amazon.com Essay

Amazon.com is an internet giant in terms of e-commerce. It was incorporated by Jeff Bezos in 1994 under the name Cadabra. In 1995 he changed the name to Amazon because he decided the former sounded too similar to â€Å"cadaver† and because he wanted a name beginning with â€Å"A† so it would potentially be at the top of any search results returned in alphabetical order. Amazon.com has headquarters in Seattle, Washington but has retail websites across the globe. It is the world’s largest internet company. Jeff Bezos has a solid reputation that is appreciated by colleagues, employees, and customers alike. Forbes magazine touts his status as â€Å"our greatest living CEO† while his employees perhaps know him best for leaving an empty seat open at conference meeting tables. The empty chair is symbolic of the customer at Amazon.com and Bezos often refers to it as â€Å"the most important person in the room† (Hartung 2013). While many leaders in retail recognize the importance of customer satisfaction, by making the customer an active presence at meetings Jeff Bezos sends a powerful message to his constituents. Some of the characteristics of Jeff Bezos leadership style are that he always challenges idle thinking, he makes customer service a main priority, and he continuously renovates his approach. Bezos does not accept that there is one truth about the way things should be done, even if that way has proven to be successful previously. An example of how Bezos challenges idle thinking also illustrates his stark belief that failure is an opportunity to progress: Years ago, when the bulk of product was written and spoken language the company hired editors to write book and music reviews then decided to use customers critiques instead (Anders, 2012). That relatively small decision speaks volumes of Jeff’s commitment to truth and to customer satisfaction. A hallmark of Jeff Bezo’s leadership style is his innovative reinventing of any process, idea, or task regardless of how big or small it is. Bezo has a critical eye for improvement, and the intestinal fortitude to make changes where and whenever he sees fit. An example of this is Bezo’s solution to shipping fees. Instead of the expected shipping and handling fee added to  each item at checkout, he invented a unique solution. He implemented Amazon Prime, a service that charges an annual fee for unlimited 2 day shipping on eligible items, of which there are thousands. This has significantly reduced the hassle of checkout for several reasons. Subscribing to Amazon Prime eliminates calculating extra fees based on distance and the timeframe for delivery of items. It also promotes a positive customer experience by not seeing totals continue to increase as tax and shipping fees are tacked on during the last few clicks of checkout. Lastly, it speeds the checkout process by offering one click ordering using previously saved information such as address and payment info. A simple solution to the sometimes painful fees associated with product delivery has made a huge impact on the customers Amazon.com shopping experience! My own individual leadership styles and characteristics are similar to Jeff’s in regards to reinventing. Though I have never used that word to describe my approach it is in line with how I tackle and solve problems. I am never satisfied with one way to do things, and I abjure routine. At the forefront of my leadership style I am always considering my resources whether it be an innovative new process or lesson, considering the ideas my partner or team presents, and utilizing help in any fashion to carry out effective leadership. To be an effective leader, all of the leadership styles commonly associated with powerful leadership abilities would apply and they include Directing, Coaching, Supporting, and Delegating. The challenge for the leader is the flexibility to recognize the dynamics of the situation and be versatile in the application of the different styles. Consider a Mass Casualty Incident, or â€Å"MCI† such as the recent tragedy in Boston, the marathon bombing. MCI leadership would first be responsible for establishing command and Delegating others to oversee patient triaging, which is the sorting of victims by severity of injury or illness. As Emergency vehicles and personnel respond to the scene, MCI leadership would Direct resources to the appropriate locations. Because there may be so many different levels of personnel at the scene of an MCI, leadership may have to Coach lesser trained personnel to effectively carry out necessary tasks involved in scene management. Finally, an effective leader in this scenario would recognize where Supportive care, resources, and needs of the team should be addressed. Some of the leadership characteristics I share in common with Jeff Bezos are  passion, fearlessness, and confidence. Environmental or Societal factors that might influence my approach to leadership at this organization would be politics and inexperience. Even as I feel as though my leadership characteristics are similar to the CEO of Amazon’s, it would be a challenge to understand how they apply in a business model. In contrast, I have achieved efficiency and success with similar styles in a healthcare setting which can somewhat be comparable to business in the interest of organization, responsibility, and professionalism. Even if I were in a different organization I do not feel as though my style or characteristics would alter. I may adjust them to meet the demands of the current situation, organization or environment but I would always be functioning on a core set of values that would adapt to my needs, versus my needs adapting to my values. Economic conditions would influence my approach to leadership affecting budget and finances. Like Jeff Bezos, I support spending a significant amount of resources dedicated to customer service and evaluations of what the customer wants. In times of a strong economy I would want to expand the Amazon product and consider a restaurant line to the online retail chain as a means of satisfying 2 venues: a retail storefront, and a new experience for fine dining. Diners would be able to experience the Amazon style of purchasing by specifically choosing what ingredients, cooking methods, and dinging decor they want by placing orders through the website at tableside mounte d computers. Amazon Prime members would receive a discount or some type of special privilege, and orders would be delivered in a timely manner to the customer. References Amazon.com. (2014, February 9). Retrieved September 2, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon.com Anders, G. (2012, April 23). Jeff Bezos’s Top 10 Leadership Lessons. Retrieved September 5, 2014, from http://www.forbes.com/sites/georgeanders/2012/04/04/bezos-tips/ Hartung, A. (2013, January 8). Why Jeff Bezos is Our Greatest Living CEO. Retrieved September 5, 2014. McGinn, D. (2013, October 18). How Jeff Bezos Makes Decisions. Retrieved September 5, 2014, from http://blogs.hbr.org/2013/10/how-jeff-bezos-makes-decisions/